Tourism vs. Agriculture in Dominica: The Impact of Economic Sector Prioritization on Food Security

Photo of Roseau, the capital of Dominica, as a cruise ship sits in the port. Roseau is the largest city and main economic hub on the island. (Image Source: Pixabay: https://pixabay.com/photos/dominica-roseau-caribbean-sea-4884551/)

By Morgan Dreibelbis

Introduction

            The United Nations has designated the Caribbean as “ground zero” in the global climate emergency, warning that, without immediate action, many islands could become uninhabitable.[i] Like other small island nations, Dominica is increasingly vulnerable to climate-related disasters. The devastation of the 2017 and 2018 hurricanes, which wiped out 80% of the nation’s agriculture, underscored this threat.[ii] In response, Dominica’s government has committed to becoming the world’s first climate-resilient nation. New economic policy prioritizes tourism over agriculture, marking a significant shift in the country’s economic structure. Given Dominica’s historic ties to agriculture and its natural environment, this transition raises critical questions about whether it will aid declining food security and how it could shift national identity.

Background

            The Commonwealth ofDominica, located in the Eastern Caribbean, spans 290 square miles. As of 2024, Dominica has an estimated population of 74,661, with approximately 85% of its residents of African descent, and the largest remaining Indigenous group in the Caribbean, the Kalinago, numbering around 2,000 people.[iii] Since 1400, the Kalinago lived on the land they named Waitukubuli and first encountered Europeans in 1493 after which the island was referred to as Dominica by colonizers.[iv]The Kalinago fiercely resisted European colonization through several centuries, engaging in both trade and violent skirmishes, while suffering abduction and enslavement at the hands of European forces.[v]

Throughout the 16^th century, Dominica became a refuge for escaped slaves who found safety in the island’s rugged, impenetrable terrain that hindered foreign invaders, creating a maroon community.[vi] Any attempt to establish a typical plantation structure and rhythm were interrupted by maroon insurgencies that would destroy the farm.[vii] Even after the British asserted control, the island never transitioned into a successful plantation economy. Efforts to establish sugar plantations lasted fewer than forty years, yielding only a fraction of the output produced by colonies on other Caribbean islands. Instead, Dominica developed a diverse agro-export economy, dominated by small to medium-sized coffee estates owned by French settlers and free Africans and worked by small, enslaved labor forces.[viii] Overall, Dominica’s colonial history was turbulent, “characterized by the cyclical retreat and advance of the plantation export regime, deep hegemonic discontinuities, the struggle between Maroon or peasant and plantation, and the rise and fall of different export crops,” which persisted into the late 19^th century.[ix]

In the early 20^th century, British officials introduced incentives to attract overseas settlers, offering land, property rights, and infrastructure development. However, the British government’s offerings to settlers relied on locals to supply the labor for these developments, who vehemently resisted these efforts, continuing the resistance to plantation-based, labor-intensive economies.[x] Many in the labor class pressured the planter class into accepting sharecropping arrangements, but the planter class and colonial administration took measures to deter the growth of a free and autonomous peasant economy. The deliberate suppression of peasant development shifted in 1930 as Britain’s global interests evolved, leading to policy changes supporting the labor class.[xi] Dominica finally achieved full independence on November 3, 1978.[xii] Since then, the island nation has suffered from consistent hurricanes that have devastated its agricultural sector, consequently disrupting the economy that depended on it.

In the 1980s, banana exports accounted for 70% of Dominica’s national earnings, bolstered by guaranteed access to the UK market.[xiii] However, as global competition increased and hurricanes hindered banana production, the island diversified into other agricultural products, including citrus fruits, vegetables, coffee, cocoa, coconuts, herb oils, extracts, flowers, mangoes, and guavas. Today, approximately 35% of the land is used for agriculture, with 24% dedicated to permanent crops.[xiv] Additionally, livestock and fishing play minor roles in the agricultural sector, mostly for local consumption. The agriculture sector makes up about 17% of Dominica’s economy and employs 21% of the workforce.[xv]

Over the past two decades, the government has prioritized modernizing agriculture alongside expanding into other economic sectors. Agriculture remains the country’s second-largest industry, accounting for 11.5% to 15.2% of GDP between 2010 to 2020.[xvi] Roughly one-third of the land is allocated to croplands and pastures, with small farms practicing multiple cropping and commercial farms utilizing protected agriculture for high-value crops and livestock.[xvii] According to the most recent data in 2010 from the Commonwealth Network, farm sizes range from 0.5 to 10 hectares, with both private individuals and cooperatives engaged in seed production and distribution.

Dominica is a highly import-dependent nation, with imports totaling $414.1 million in 2023, while exports only reached $185.1 million that same year. Food import dependency remains a significant economic and food security challenge for the Caribbean, with the region importing between 60% and 80% of its food supply.[xviii] Dominica’s external debt stood at $282.2 million in 2022.[xix] As a medium-to-high income nation, it is ineligible for most sources of international aid. Consequently, Dominica relies heavily on its Citizenship by Investment (CBI) program, which contributed 33% of GDP in 2022 and 26.9% in 2023.[xx] Through CBI, foreigners can acquire citizenship either by investing $200,000 in government-approved real estate or by making a direct financial contribution to the government.[xxi] Dominican Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit’s economic recovery strategy is centered on CBI revenue, prioritizing tourism expansion over agricultural development. In 2024, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) issued a press release crediting the rebound in tourism to public investments and CBI revenue, leading to GDP growth of 5.6% in 2022 and predicting 4.7% in 2023.[xxii] 

Climate change poses the greatest threat to Dominica, as emphasized in the 2020-2030 Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan, which seeks to make the nation the world’s first climate-resilient country.[xxiii] This initiative is part of the National Resilience Development Strategy, launched in 2018 in response to the devastation caused by Hurricane Maria. Both frameworks aim to align Dominica’s economic and environmental objectives with long-term climate resilience. Prime Minister Skerrit underscored the urgency of this mission, stating “We as a country and as a region did not start this war against nature… The war has come to us… There is no more time for conversation! There is little time left for action.”[xxiv] With limited time to act, Dominica’s success or failure in achieving these goals will have significant implications for the climate strategies of other Caribbean nations that may look to the island for guidance.

Food Security, Access, and Nourishment

As climate change continues to impact Dominica’s agriculture, food security on the island is of great concern. Success of the Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan to address this issue will be difficult to evaluate as the data on food security among Dominican citizens is limited due to few complete data sets and scarce scholarly research on the topic. A 2020 study on food security in the Caribbean found their literature review serves as “one of the only, if not the only, recent literature reviews on the subject”.[xxv] Researchers also reported that many of the methods for investigating the intersection of climate change and food security in the region varied widely, and often did not prioritize the narratives of Caribbean citizens.

 Research on food security on three regions in Dominica, published in 2012, provides an earlier analysis of national food security, by assessing the parents of 300 school children across three regions: the Southwest, Carib Territory, and the North. The study found that food insecurity was highest in areas with high poverty and unemployment levels, particularly among the Kalinago people.[xxvi] Notably, food security among children was higher than the household, which would include the child’s parents or other adult relatives. This suggests parents are taking measures to lessen the impacts of food insecurity on children, especially since the study found little statistical correlation between food security levels and availability of common primary school feeding programs. The more recent study from 2020 provides a broader analysis of food security challenges and strategies across the Caribbean region. Ongoing climate-related events including floods, drought, sea-level rise, and crop diseases continue to endanger vulnerable populations, particularly low-income groups, indigenous communities, children, and the elderly.[xxvii] Changes in rainfall have resulted in lower agricultural yields, heat stress decreases domestic animal productivity and fertility, and warming ocean temperatures threaten vital reef species.

            In 2020, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) – an intergovernmental economic and political organization made up of 15 member states from the Americas, Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean – launched the Caribbean Food Security and Livelihoods survey in collaboration with the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA), the World Food Programme (WFP), and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.[xxviii] However, the survey has a relatively low response rate compared to Dominica’s total population, with the highest participation recorded at 545 respondents in 2020, dropping to only 223 in 2024.[xxix] Respondent demographics have remained consistent, with approximately 75% of participants being female and 25% being male. While the findings from the 2024 survey show an incremental improvement in overall food security, many still struggle to put food on the table every day (see Graph A: Prevalence Rates of Food Security).

Graph A: Prevalence Rates of Food Insecurity, Dominica 2024 Food Security & Livelihoods Survey Report

Approximately 42% of the 223 survey respondents were classified as either moderately or severely food insecure, primarily due to income restraints. Additionally, 34% of respondents reported experiencing job loss or reduced household income in the six months prior to the survey, while 24% had to rely on secondary or alternative sources of income – collectively accounting for more than half of all respondents. Rising costs of essential goods and services have further exacerbated economic hardship, with 70% of respondents stating that significant increases in food prices, gas, electricity, and health care have impacted their ability to afford necessities. Access challenges also persist, with one-third of respondents reporting an inability to access markets in the 30 days prior to the survey. Among them, 88% cited a lack of money as the primary barrier to purchasing food.[xxx] Due to unaffordable groceries, Dominicans are forced to change their shopping behaviors to reduce food insecurity with a majority of respondents buying smaller quantities of groceries, cheaper or less preferred foods, or shopping in different stores. (see Graph B: Changes in Shopping Habits due to Food Insecurity).

Graph B: Changes in Shopping Habits due to Food Insecurity, Dominica 2024 Food Security & Livelihoods Survey Report

A key component of food security is both the quality and availability of food. Dominica has experienced a slight decrease in undernourishment over the last few years, following a period in which the percentage of undernourished people tripled from 4.8% in 2012 to 13.4% in 2022 (see Graph C: Prevalence of Undernourishment as a Percentage).

Graph C: Prevalence of Undernourishment as a Percentage, FAOSTAT

Although food security and nourishment are closely related, they are distinct concepts. UN World Food Security defines food security access to food for an active and healthy lifestyle while undernourishment is measured solely by energy (calorie) intake, not diet quality or diversity.[xxxi] Despite the FAO’s involvement in the CARICOM Food Security and Livelihoods Surveys, a disconnect exists between that data and the FAOSTAT website, which compiles food security statistics for most countries. The FAO’s data on food security is lacking in comparative historical data as well as specificity, both in the CARICOM reports and the FAOSTAT Food Security Indicators. The lack of historical and comprehensive data on food security is significant as it limits the effectiveness of tracking long-term trends and the impact of major natural disasters (see Graph D: Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity as a Percentage).

Graph D: Prevalence Of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity as a Percentage, FAOSTAT

Accessing detailed data on vulnerable populations from FAO and CARICOM sources is challenging. The Food Security and Livelihoods Survey acknowledges these gaps, noting, “While the survey contributes to a better overview of current state food security and livelihoods, the data is not representative, and the use of an online questionnaire limits inputs from people without internet connectivity”.[xxxii] In Dominica, 81% of the population had internet access as of 2021.[xxxiii]

Another issue is that the FAOSTAT report measures per one million people in their surveys. With a population of under 75,000, the results of FAOSTAT surveys list all values as “less than one million,” offering little insight into the actual impact of food security. The data in Graph D is derived from separate male and female adult food insecurity rates, both recorded at 5.8% for three reporting periods: 2019 to 2021, 2020 to 2022, and 2021 to 2023.[xxxiv] The consistency of these figures across multiple survey cycles suggests limitations in data collection, particularly when compared to the CARICOM 2024 report, which highlights significant gender differences in food insecurity rates (see Graph E: Prevalence rates of food insecurity and Graph F: Experiences in Food Insecurity by Sex).

Graph E: Prevalence Rates of Food Insecurity, Dominica 2024 Food Security & Livelihoods Survey Report

Graph F: Experience in Food Insecurity by Sex, Dominica 2024 Food Security & Livelihoods Survey Report

            Since the launch of the Caribbean Food Security and Livelihoods Surveys in 2020, food security data has expanded, though significant gaps remain. Limited data makes it difficult to establish a baseline for evaluating policy effectiveness or measuring changes in food security practices. Without historical data, there is no way of accurately evaluating how hurricanes impact citizens’ access to food, or if programs such as the EALCRP were successful in increasing food security. Larger, more comprehensive surveys are necessary to assess the overall impact of food insecurity, to evaluate effects on specific vulnerable groups and identify root causes.

Policies Impacting Food Security and Livelihoods

Samantha King’s 2022 dissertation, Sustainable Transitions in Agricultural Livelihoods: Global Change and Local Food Production in Dominica, explores how smallholding farmers adapt to global changes, including shifts in export markets and climate stressors.[xxxv] The study found that while farmers have developed innovative strategies for sustainable livelihoods, national policies often impede these efforts by focusing on rigid frameworks that overlook local solutions. King argues that there is a lack of policy support for making agriculture a sustainable livelihood choice, with existing policies emphasizing regulatory burdens and high-tech approaches that make the field unapproachable.[xxxvi] This finding is supported by the 2020 Lenderking report, that decentralized governance structures prioritizing local knowledge and community capacity building are essential for effective climate adaptation and improved food security.[xxxvii] In contrast, Prime Minister Skerrit’s two most recent policies that include efforts to improve food security, support expanding agricultural technologies and practices to boost farm productivity and climate resiliency.

In March 2018, Prime Minister Skerrit established the Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (EALCRP), with the goal of restoring livelihoods for farmers and fisherfolk by enhancing their climate resiliency.[xxxviii]Hurricane Maria affected small-scale farmers and fishers particularly hard, destroying 80-100% of crops and 45-90% of livestock along with 370 fishing vessels. The project built upon the already established Disaster Vulnerability Reduction Project (DVRP), which provided unconditional cash transfers to commercial and small farmers to aid in recovery efforts with support from the World Bank.[xxxix]

The 2023 United Nations FAO report, “Social Protection and Anticipatory Action to Protect Agricultural Livelihoods,” examined the impact of these cash transfers with the goal better understanding potential social protection options ahead of climate shocks and disasters. The study found that about $3.5 million went to 2,500 crop farmers.[xl] However, there is a major block in the potential for anticipatory action to help protect agricultural livelihoods in Dominica due to limited integration of data across sectors that enable livelihood-specific targeting. The Dominica Ministry of Agriculture’s registries of farmers and fishers are not easily accessible to social protection agencies, which is necessary to assess their vulnerability or understand potential actions to support them. Even the cash grants to farmers relied on applications submitted by farmers, rather than awarding them automatically from an internal system.[xli] Much like food security data, the Government of Dominica inhibits the ability of these programs to be implemented or measured successfully without comprehensive data.

The EALCRP invests in emerging agricultural technologies and practices to enhance climate resiliency and bolster agricultural production. The World Bank and Government have stated that current agricultural sector is fragmented and inadequately financed, constrained by limited arable land and small farms lacking in technical knowledge and efficient systems.[xlii] These challenges align with the objectives of Dominica’s National Agricultural Policy and Action Plan 2016-2025, which promotes a modernized agricultural sector, increased productivity, and enhanced climate resilience in food systems.[xliii] EALCRP’s key indicators are:

• Farmers and fisherfolk reached with productive assets and services (of which female beneficiaries)
• Crop areas restored (including high-value crops)
• Farmers adopting improved agricultural technologies (including climate resilience)

These indicators will determine the project’s success by 2025 in restoring production capacity, strengthening resilience, and advancing agribusiness capabilities. The World Bank has committed $28.6 million in loans to this project.[xliv] As of November 2024, Dominica’s progress is rated as moderately satisfactory. Since 2018, the project has distributed input packages to 3,713 farmers and assisted 171 farmers with livestock construction materials, and restored key agricultural, livestock, and forestry infrastructure.[xlv] Project funds are on track to slightly exceed the original estimate (see Graph G: Cumulative Disbursements of the Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project).

Graph G: Cumulative Disbursements of the Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project, World Bank

Citizen Engagement

The November 2024 report highlights missing data and gaps in EALCRP’s monitoring process, particularly the absence of citizen engagement surveys in the six months preceding both the April and November 2024 reports.[xlvi] The report also states the lack of a monitoring and evaluation office to assess beneficiary satisfaction or measure food insecurity.[xlvii] Since none of the project indicators are directly related to food security, citizen evaluations could serve as a valuable tool to gauge the level of food insecurity in Dominica upon EALCRP’s completion, a stated goal of the Dominica’s government.

Although EALCRP tracks gender participation, no data is available on Kalinago beneficiaries despite their high vulnerability. Section 1.A. of the report acknowledges that the Kalinago constitutes 5% of the population and experience poverty rates of 49.8%.[xlviii] As a vulnerable population, a separate evaluation is crucial to ensure benefits reach them. During Hurricane Maria, the Kalinago’s 3,000-acre territory was one of the hardest hit areas.[xlix] Dominica’s EALCRP website lists approved crop farmers that received either an essential package of inputs – such as improved quality seeds and fertilizers, tools and materials for replanting or restoration of crops – or received technical advisory services and training (though this does not offer the same for fisherfolk or livestock farmers). Of the 1,957 recipients, less than 55 are explicitly identified as living in Kalinago territory, with no further distinction made.[l] A broader evaluation of EALCRP’s impact on other vulnerable groups – children, the elderly and impoverished – is necessary. While these groups may not directly benefit as program recipients, they are likely to experience shifts in food security from the program’s implementation.

Role of CBI in Tourism and Agriculture Policy

            Prime Minister Skerrit’s newest policy, Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery, seeks to strengthen the economy, primarily by investing CBI funds in the country’s tourism sector. In a press conference to announce the recovery plan, Skerrit highlighted the pivotal role CBI played in hurricane and pandemic recovery. Funds went towards mostly housing projects and rebuilding the tourism sector, which stimulated the local economy.[li] Major infrastructural changes are planned to support the expansion in tourism by building an international airport and additional hotels.[lii]

In addition to tourism, Skerrit’s recovery plan commits to expanding the agricultural sector by promoting sustainable practices that will increase Dominica’s export potential and food security by “investing in modern farming techniques and supporting local farmers in Dominica as an effort to create a more self-sufficient economy.”[liii] Other government agencies have echoed the Prime Minister’s vision of greater mechanization in local agriculture over traditional practices. In April 2024, Parliamentary Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture Lakeyia Joseph stated, “we aim to revolutionize and solidify our relationship with the land that sustains us… to elevate agriculture beyond traditional practices, focusing on agro-processing valued addition and the entire value chain directly supporting over 600 farmers and processors in their endeavors to contribute meaningfully to the Dominican economy.”[liv]

Skerrit’s goal is to create a diverse economy using CBI income exclusively for non-recurring expenditures, preventing dependence on the funds as a primary financing source. The Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan estimates the cost of achieving its goals by 2030 will cost around $8.2 – $9.8 billion, with a $2.5-$3.5 billion financing gap.[lv] The policy is based upon and supported by the IMF, which reported in the 2024 Article IV Consultation with Dominica that “Dominica’s economic outlook is positive, predicated on a continued recovery in tourism and the implementation of the country’s modernization and resilience building agenda.”[lvi] The report also acknowledges the volatility of CBI with Dominica’s narrow economic base, exposure to natural disasters, and limited fiscal space for development. Should there be a sudden drop in CBI participation, an overreliance on the funds from the program could be devastating for the island.

While climate resilience in agriculture is crucial for food security, the potential consequences of these changes must be carefully considered, particularly given Dominica’s long history of self-sustaining and collaborative practices. Changes in both agriculture and economic priorities could significantly affect food security. The government has encouraged Dominicans to prioritize local products and limit foreign purchases to cases where no local alternatives exist.[lvii] However, increasing local production and consumption will be difficult due to Dominica’s high reliance on imports. A 2019 study examines the vulnerability and adaptation assessment (V&A) conducted as part of Dominica’s 2010-2019 National Strategic Plan for Health. Dominica imports a significant amount of food, and therefore the stability of imports greatly impacts food security. Domestic food production systems are highly sensitive to climate change, as “Dominica is significantly influenced by the health and productivity of the surrounding terrestrial and coastal environments used for food production as well as climate variables, access to food sources, and socioeconomic status.”[lviii] Projections indicate that by 2050, agricultural losses will reach 20%, posing a significant threat to food production – for exporting or local consumption – and security.

Citizen Opinion

            Evaluating public response to these policies is challenging due to limited data. Public opinion, primarily gathered from comments on news articles, suggests criticism of the government’s approach. In an article on agro-processing published in Dominica News Online in April 2024, some commenters questioned the government’s record on agricultural production, claiming that progress has stalled under Skerrit’s leadership. Readers commented that the term “agriculture” is only used for political gain, rather than for policy that genuinely helps citizens.[lix] Similar sentiments appeared in the June 2023 WFP survey press release, where readers expressed frustration with food security issues despite the country’s agricultural potential: “food security should not be problematic… we have the wherewithal to produce enough to food ourselves. If we manage our agriculture sector efficiently and effectively, we should even have a surplus for export… the welfare of the ordinary citizen is not even secondary but barely tertiary.”[lx] While these comments are anecdotal, they offer candid insights into public sentiment not easily found through official evaluations.

Discussion

            The current economic plan promotes tourism development “as it creates jobs and stimulates local economies by increasing the demand for local products and services”.[lxi] This strategy will primarily benefit the 72.3% of Dominicans living in urban areas who are more likely employed in the hospitality sector to accommodate the anticipated influx of eco-tourists, rather than those working in agriculture.[lxii] The rise in tourism will likely drive-up demand for food, worsening food insecurity for the 42% of locals already struggling with high prices. Moreover, an influx of wealthy tourists and new citizens through CBI programs is expected to further increase prices. Both tourism and CBI are volatile, dependent on continuously attracting visitors and investors despite the increasing frequency of natural disasters (see Graph H: International Tourism, Number of Arrivals – Dominica).[lxiii] Furthermore, tourism expansion increases carbon emissions, exacerbating climate change impacts Dominica is actively working to address.

Based on Dominica’s risks to climate change, planned advancements in agricultural practices are necessary for the island to survive. Increasing technology use in agriculture would help Dominica strengthen its climate resiliency and is necessary to support the increase in tourism that will result in greater food consumption. However, these agro-industrial practices threaten the cultural significance of farming and the ability of Dominica to feed itself. In a memoir, Gabriel J. Christian, reflects on his childhood during the 1960s-80’s when local agriculture thrived: “such a combination of animal life, backyard gardening and cottage agro-industry allowed for us to provide for our own nutrition in a self-sufficient, intelligent, and industrious fashion. We were more self-reliant in feeding ourselves”.[lxiv] He calls for Dominicans to embrace their role as custodians of the land, especially as the islands face challenges. Dominica’s resiliency through agriculture goes back to their resistance to plantation farming, maintaining subsistence and independent farming for centuries. Regular external trade and coffee estates supported an agro-export economy, while still feeding themselves.[lxv] Dominican historian and anthropologist Lennox Honeychurch states that both the national and tribal identity of Dominica is one of a “spirit of self-reliance and a respect for the citadel of this island that has given its natural resources for our survival and for the continued protection of our people”.[lxvi] Current economic changes threaten this cultural legacy and may irreversibly compromise Dominica’s ability to feed itself.

The government’s language on agriculture is often dismissive of traditional practices, as when Prime Minister Skerrit said, “we aim to elevate agriculture beyond traditional practices”.[lxvii] The World Bank echoes this view, claiming agriculture is “severely constrained in Dominica due to small farm sizes… low level of farm productivity… Overall, the sector lacks adequate financing and adequate infrastructure and is characterized by a very fragmented and unorganized private sector”.[lxviii] However, the Prime Minister still requests for Dominicans to grow their own food and consume local products.[lxix] With three-quarters of the population living in urban areas with limited space for gardening, this request is impractical and would require more small farming with affordable methods. The 2024 Food Security and Livelihoods Survey Report highlights that food security continues to be an issue largely due to an increase in the price of necessities. If imports are cheaper than locally grown food, Dominicans will have little choice but to buy what they can afford. The government’s policies focusing on modern techniques and resources for local farmers and fisherfolk is vital but do not address the broader population who lack the resources to follow the Prime Minister’s suggestions of home gardening and buying local.

Nearly 50% of Dominica’s rural population consists of impoverished Kalinago people, who are heavily reliant on Dominica’s ecosystems for subsistence agriculture and forestry.[lxx] They have long protected Dominica’s biodiversity through sustainable and traditional practices, playing a significant part of the nation’s resilient legacy.[lxxi] The government’s shift in prioritization of tourism created tensions due to the environmental threat it poses. Cozier Frederick, Minister of the Environment and a Kalinago member, stated, “we are trying to balance keeping nature intact and keeping cultural heritage intact while being mindful that neither may grow if there’s no one outside seeing it, appreciating it, and learning from it”.[lxxii] The Kalinago are exploring ways to engage in eco-tourism to preserve their own practices and educate on preservation through offering cultural experiences, traditional crafts, and education on sustainable practices.

There is a certain irony in Dominica’s ecotourism. The island attracts tourists wanting to contribute to its environmental conservation and be minimally impactful. Yet, the mere presence of the tourists on the island requires significant amounts of energy and infrastructure. Tourism requires islands such as Dominica to convert more natural areas to hotels, roads, and other tourist infrastructure – whether the tourists are environmentally conscious or not. This takes land from local citizens and disrupts historically significant agricultural practices, reminiscent of the land-use changes during the colonial plantation era. Dominica has the right to develop in ways they desire, which may include more tourists and urban infrastructure. However, the question arises whether such growth would be pursued by citizens over the preservation of close agricultural connections to the land, if not for undue mounting financial pressures. Most of Dominica’s financial needs are either to pay for the effects of climate change, which Dominica barely contributes to and faces few international financing options. Or to pay off debt, which has accumulated from climate-related disasters and forced participation in the global economy since colonization, through a Western idea of development and success. This is a complex issue that only Dominicans can answer. Government prioritization of tourism over agriculture requires further analysis of how these choices impact cultural connections to the land, traditional agriculture, and food security, particularly for the vulnerable populations left out of official data.

Conclusion

Dominica is experiencing a profound transformation across economic, social, and environmental sectors. As Donalson Frederick, a Kalinago disaster response manager, noted, “Dominica is on the frontline…Climate change is not something that is happening tomorrow. It’s happening now, and it’s affecting our livelihood now”.[lxxiii] The need to adapt to climate change and become more resilient is indisputable. Equally important is how those goals are achieved and if they support food security for the most vulnerable populations on the island while maintaining the cultural integrity of the nation. Prime Minister Skerrit’s decision to prioritize the expansion of tourism as the primary industry over agriculture matters not just for the people who call Dominica home, their access to food, and connection to the land. It also matters for other small nations in the Caribbean and beyond. Cozier Frederick called Dominica, “a sort of petri dish for all island developing states,” as they aim to become the first climate-resilient nation and a model for sustainable development, including ecotourism. Dominica’s success or failure could influence other island nations to adopt similar economic shifts, often away from agriculture in favor of more profitable industries. Like Dominica, many post-colonial nations with a historic connection to the land and agriculture face challenges of shifting economic priorities. Transitioning to tourism will generate revenue but also may erode local connections to land and community, as environments designed for tourists alter the landscape.

Dominica provides a unique case study because of its history of independence, especially in agricultural practices, unlike other post-colonial territories. Prioritizing tourism over agriculture puts this culture of resiliency at risk. Data in Dominica is fragmented, and shifts in economic approach, urbanization, and decreasing small-holder farming could further intensify food insecurity. More research is required to understand how these changes impact the most vulnerable populations. Dominica’s economic decisions today will impact not only its people, but also other island nations looking for guidance on achieving their own climate resilience.

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Hofman, Corinne L., Menno L. P. Hoogland, Arie Boomert, and John Angus Martin. “Colonial Encounters in the Southern Lesser Antilles: Indigenous Resistance, Material Transformations, and Diversity in an Ever-Globalizing World.” In Material Encounters and Indigenous Transformations in the Early Colonial Americas: Archaeological Case Studies, edited by Corinne L. Hofman and Floris W. M. Keehnen, 9:359–84. Brill, 2019. doi:10.1163/9789004273689_017.

“The Importance of Dominica’s Indigenous Kalinago Community in the Protection and Sustainable Management of the Fragile Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems.” World Bank Group (blog), August 5, 2022. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2022/08/05/the-importance-of-dominica-s-indigenous-kalinago-community-in-the-protection-and-sustainable-management-of-the-fragile-t.print.

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King, Samantha Kelsey. 2022. Sustainable Transitions In Agricultural Livelihoods: Global Change and Local Food Production In Dominica. doi:10.17615/1yh5-gv92

Lincoln Lenderking, Hania, Stacy-ann Robinson, and Gail Carlson. 2020. “Climate Change and Food Security in Caribbean Small Island Developing States: Challenges and Strategies.” International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 28 (3): 238–45. doi:10.1080/13504509.2020.1804477. 

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Nations, United, ed. 2022. “The Caribbean is ‘ground zero’ for the global climate emergency: Gueterres.” UN News, July 3. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/07/1121902.

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Rep. 2024 Article IV Consultation—Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement By The Executive Director For Dominica. IMF, June 2024. file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/1dmaea2024001-print-pdf.pdf.

Rep. Caribbean Food Security and Livelihoods Survey Dominica, April 2024. Vol. Dominica, April 2024. Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana: CARICOM Secretariat, 2024. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000162411/download/.

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Ritchie, Hannah, and Max Roser. “What Is Undernourishment and How Is It Measured?” Our World in Data, March 3, 2024. https://ourworldindata.org/undernourishment-definition.

Schnitter, Rebekka, Marielle Verret, Peter Berry, Tanya Chung Tiam Fook, Simon Hales, Aparna Lal, and Sally Edwards. 2019. “An Assessment of Climate Change and Health Vulnerability and Adaptation in Dominica” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 1: 70. doi:10.3390/ijerph16010070

Wall-Bassett, Elizabeth D., Brenda Joyce Vander Mey, and Pamela Guiste. “Food Security in Three Regions of Dominica: Baseline Data and Social Epidemiological Exploration.” Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition 7, no. 2–3 (2012): 224–38. doi:10.1080/19320248.2012.704659

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[i] Nations, United, ed. 2022. “The Caribbean is ‘ground zero’ for the global climate emergency: Gueterres.” UN News, July 3. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/07/1121902.

[ii] Dominica Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan 2020-2030. 2020. http://www.dominica.gov.dm/images/docs/notices/crrp_final_042020.pdf.

[iii] “Dominica.” The World Factbook, November 30, 2024. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominica/.

[iv] “The History of Dominica.” Discover Dominica. Accessed December 2, 2024. https://discoverdominica.com/en/history-culture.

[v] Hofman, Corinne L., Menno L. P. Hoogland, Arie Boomert, and John Angus Martin. “Colonial Encounters in the Southern Lesser Antilles: Indigenous Resistance, Material Transformations, and Diversity in an Ever-Globalizing World.” In Material Encounters and Indigenous Transformations in the Early Colonial Americas: Archaeological Case Studies, edited by Corinne L. Hofman and Floris W. M. Keehnen, 9:359–84. Brill, 2019. doi:10.1163/9789004273689_017.

[vi] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[vii] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[viii] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[ix] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[x] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[xi] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[xii] Momsen, J. D., and David Lawrence Niddrie. “Dominica.” Encyclopedia Britannica, November 21, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/place/Dominica.

[xiii]  Caribbean Agri-Business. 2020. Dominica Profile. July 10. Accessed November 2024. https://agricarib.org/dominica-2/.

[xiv] Caribbean Agri-Business. 2020. Dominica Profile. July 10. Accessed November 2024. https://agricarib.org/dominica-2/.

[xv] Caribbean Agri-Business. 2020. Dominica Profile. July 10. Accessed November 2024. https://agricarib.org/dominica-2/.

[xvi] Hayman, A., St. Martin, C., Prevost, S., Witkowski, K., & IICA, C. Building Climate Resilient Agriculture in Caribbean Countries: The Commonwealth of Dominica. Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), Canefield, Dominica, 2023.

[xvii] Hayman, A., St. Martin, C., Prevost, S., Witkowski, K., & IICA, C. Building Climate Resilient Agriculture in Caribbean Countries: The Commonwealth of Dominica. Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), Canefield, Dominica, 2023.

[xviii] “Resilient Caribbean Initiative: Dominica.” Resilient Caribbean Initiative. Accessed December 1, 2024. https://www.fao.org/in-action/resilient-caribbean-initiative/countries/dominica/en

[xix] “Dominica.” The World Factbook, November 30, 2024. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominica/.

[xx] Rep. 2024 Article IV Consultation—Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement By The Executive Director For Dominica. IMF, June 2024. file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/1dmaea2024001-print-pdf.pdf.

[xxi] “Dominica Citizenship by Investment Unit: Government of Dominica.” Dominica, November 13, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/.

[xxii] Rep. 2024 Article IV Consultation—Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement By The Executive Director For Dominica. IMF, June 2024. file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/1dmaea2024001-print-pdf.pdf.

[xxiii] Dominica Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan 2020-2030. 2020. http://www.dominica.gov.dm/images/docs/notices/crrp_final_042020.pdf.

[xxiv] Dominica Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan 2020-2030. 2020. http://www.dominica.gov.dm/images/docs/notices/crrp_final_042020.pdf.

[xxv] Lincoln Lenderking, Hania, Stacy-ann Robinson, and Gail Carlson. 2020. “Climate Change and Food Security in Caribbean Small Island Developing States: Challenges and Strategies.” International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 28 (3): 238–45. doi:10.1080/13504509.2020.1804477. 

[xxvi] Wall-Bassett, Elizabeth D., Brenda Joyce Vander Mey, and Pamela Guiste. “Food Security in Three Regions of Dominica: Baseline Data and Social Epidemiological Exploration.” Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition 7, no. 2–3 (2012): 224–38. doi:10.1080/19320248.2012.704659

[xxvii] Lincoln Lenderking, Hania, Stacy-ann Robinson, and Gail Carlson. 2020. “Climate Change and Food Security in Caribbean Small Island Developing States: Challenges and Strategies.” International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 28 (3): 238–45. doi:10.1080/13504509.2020.1804477.

[xxviii] FAO. 2024 Suite of Food Security Indicators: Dominica. Accessed December 2, 2024. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS.

[xxix] Rep. Caribbean Food Security and Livelihoods Survey Dominica, April 2024. Vol. Dominica, April 2024. Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana: CARICOM Secretariat, 2024. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000162411/download/.

[xxx] Rep. Caribbean Food Security and Livelihoods Survey Dominica, April 2024. Vol. Dominica, April 2024. Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana: CARICOM Secretariat, 2024. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000162411/download/.

[xxxi] Ritchie, Hannah, and Max Roser. “What Is Undernourishment and How Is It Measured?” Our World in Data, March 3, 2024. https://ourworldindata.org/undernourishment-definition.

[xxxii] Rep. Caribbean Food Security and Livelihoods Survey Dominica, April 2024. Vol. Dominica, April 2024. Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana: CARICOM Secretariat, 2024. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000162411/download/.

[xxxiii] “Dominica.” The World Factbook, November 30, 2024. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominica/.

[xxxiv] FAO. 2024 Suite of Food Security Indicators: Dominica. Accessed December 2, 2024. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS.

[xxxv] King, Samantha Kelsey. 2022. Sustainable Transitions In Agricultural Livelihoods: Global Change and Local Food Production In Dominica. doi:10.17615/1yh5-gv92

[xxxvi] King, Samantha Kelsey. 2022. Sustainable Transitions In Agricultural Livelihoods: Global Change and Local Food Production In Dominica. doi:10.17615/1yh5-gv92

[xxxvii] Lincoln Lenderking, Hania, Stacy-ann Robinson, and Gail Carlson. 2020. “Climate Change and Food Security in Caribbean Small Island Developing States: Challenges and Strategies.” International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 28 (3): 238–45. doi:10.1080/13504509.2020.1804477.

[xxxviii] Dominica Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (DEALCRP). 2018. https://agriculture.gov.dm/images/documents/basic_project_data.pdf.

[xxxix] Dominica Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (DEALCRP). 2018. https://agriculture.gov.dm/images/documents/basic_project_data.pdf.

[xl] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. Social Protection and Anticipatory Action to Protect Agricultural Livelihoods. FAO of the United Nations. Accessed November 2024. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9d745e58-e5d7-49d4-97ef-66a01eecd453/content.

[xli] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. Social Protection and Anticipatory Action to Protect Agricultural Livelihoods. FAO of the United Nations. Accessed November 2024. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9d745e58-e5d7-49d4-97ef-66a01eecd453/content.

[xlii] Dominica Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (DEALCRP). 2018. https://agriculture.gov.dm/images/documents/basic_project_data.pdf.

[xliii] Dominica Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (DEALCRP). 2018. https://agriculture.gov.dm/images/documents/basic_project_data.pdf.

[xliv] “Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project.” World Bank Group. Accessed December 3, 2024. https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P166328.

[xlv] Dawes, Winston. Disclosable Version of the ISR – Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project – P166328 – Sequence No: 14 (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099110924095539505/P166328121131d03019c061674e726108c1.

[xlvi] Dawes, Winston. Disclosable Version of the ISR – Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project – P166328 – Sequence No: 14 (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099110924095539505/P166328121131d03019c061674e726108c1.

[xlvii] Dawes, Winston. Disclosable Version of the ISR – Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project – P166328 – Sequence No: 13 (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099042824204036035/P1663281276676006189781f8a6c0c75674.

[xlviii] Dominica Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (DEALCRP). 2018. https://agriculture.gov.dm/images/documents/basic_project_data.pdf.

[xlix] Altman, M. J. “For the Caribbean’s Last Indigenous Community, Sustainability Is Survival.” United Nations Foundation (blog), October 6, 2023. https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/the-caribbeans-last-indigenous-community-is-living-proof-that-sustainability-is-survival/.

[l] “List of Approved Crop Farmers.” Emergency Agricultural Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project. Accessed December 3, 2024. https://piu.agriculture.gov.dm/beneficiaries/list-of-approved-crop-farmers.

[li] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[lii] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[liii] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[liv] “Agro-Processing Key to Elevation of Sector; Grants Available, Says Official.” Dominica News, April 4, 2024. https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/governance/agro-processing-key-to-elevation-of-sector-grants-available-says-official/.

[lv] Dominica Climate Resilience and Recovery Plan 2020-2030. 2020. http://www.dominica.gov.dm/images/docs/notices/crrp_final_042020.pdf.

[lvi] Rep. 2024 Article IV Consultation—Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement By The Executive Director For Dominica. IMF, June 2024. file:///C:/Users/Owner/Downloads/1dmaea2024001-print-pdf.pdf.

[lvii] Barbara. “Skerrit Says Govt Will Invest More in Agriculture to Boost Food Security.” DOM767, July 5, 2022. https://www.dom767.com/news/skerrit-says-govt-will-invest-more-in-agriculture-to-boost-food-security/.

[lviii] Schnitter, Rebekka, Marielle Verret, Peter Berry, Tanya Chung Tiam Fook, Simon Hales, Aparna Lal, and Sally Edwards. 2019. “An Assessment of Climate Change and Health Vulnerability and Adaptation in Dominica” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 1: 70. doi:10.3390/ijerph16010070

[lix] “Agro-Processing Key to Elevation of Sector; Grants Available, Says Official.” Dominica News, April 4, 2024. https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/governance/agro-processing-key-to-elevation-of-sector-grants-available-says-official/.

[lx] “[Press Release] Results of WFP Survey: Food Security Improves in the Caribbean Yet Challenges Persist.” Dominica News Online, June 27, 2023. https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/press-release-results-of-wfp-survey-food-security-improves-in-the-caribbean-yet-challenges-persi/.

[lxi] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[lxii] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[lxiii] International Tourism, Number of Arrivals – Dominica 1995–2020. Yearbook of Tourism Statistics. Vol. 1995–2020. Compendium of Tourism Statistics and Data Files ed. World Tourism Organization, World Bank Group, n.d. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL?end=2020&locations=DM&start=1995&view=chart.

[lxiv] Christian, Gabriel J. “My Memories of Agriculture on Dominica.” Rebuild Dominica, Inc. (blog), September 18, 2024. https://rebuilddominica.org/2024/09/18/my-memories-of-agriculture-on-dominica/.

[lxv] Green, Cecilia. “A Recalcitrant Plantation Colony: Dominica, 1880-1946.” NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 73, no. 3/4 (1999): 43–71. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002577

[lxvi] Altman, M. J. “For the Caribbean’s Last Indigenous Community, Sustainability Is Survival.” United Nations Foundation (blog), October 6, 2023. https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/the-caribbeans-last-indigenous-community-is-living-proof-that-sustainability-is-survival/.

[lxvii] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[lxviii] Dominica Emergency Agriculture Livelihoods and Climate Resilience Project (DEALCRP). 2018. https://agriculture.gov.dm/images/documents/basic_project_data.pdf.

[lxix] “Prime Minister Skerrit’s Vision for Dominica: Enhancing CBI Programme and Economic Recovery.” Citizenship by Investment. Commonwealth of Dominica, October 3, 2024. https://www.cbiu.gov.dm/news/dominica-citizenship/prime-minister-skerrits-vision-for-dominica-enhancing-cbi-programme-and-economic-recovery/.

[lxx] “The Importance of Dominica’s Indigenous Kalinago Community in the Protection and Sustainable Management of the Fragile Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems.” World Bank Group (blog), August 5, 2022. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2022/08/05/the-importance-of-dominica-s-indigenous-kalinago-community-in-the-protection-and-sustainable-management-of-the-fragile-t.print.

[lxxi] Altman, M. J. “For the Caribbean’s Last Indigenous Community, Sustainability Is Survival.” United Nations Foundation (blog), October 6, 2023. https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/the-caribbeans-last-indigenous-community-is-living-proof-that-sustainability-is-survival/.

[lxxii] Altman, M. J. “For the Caribbean’s Last Indigenous Community, Sustainability Is Survival.” United Nations Foundation (blog), October 6, 2023. https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/the-caribbeans-last-indigenous-community-is-living-proof-that-sustainability-is-survival/.

[lxxiii] Altman, M. J. “For the Caribbean’s Last Indigenous Community, Sustainability Is Survival.” United Nations Foundation (blog), October 6, 2023. https://unfoundation.org/blog/post/the-caribbeans-last-indigenous-community-is-living-proof-that-sustainability-is-survival/.

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